The
following article is based on a presentation made during the Second International
Conference on Integral Psychology, held at Pondicherry (India), 4-7 January
2001. The text has been published in:
Cornelissen, Matthijs (Ed.) (2001) Consciousness and Its Transformation,
Pondicherry: SAICE
Spirituality and well-being:
an overview
K. Krishna Mohan
Introduction
The
last two decades have provided evidence from a wide range of disciplines,
that human potential for psychological growth and well-being is more than
what had been previously estimated. Though spirituality is as much a part
of human experience as any other normal form of thought and behaviour,
until recently it has not been given due importance by researchers in
psychology. This same opinion is echoed by researchers and therapists
who report that the spiritual dimension of human experience has not been
given the attention that it deserves in mental health (Adams, 1995; Canda,
1995; Ganje-Fling & McCarthy, 1996; Hall, 1995; Kane, Cheston &
Green, 1993; King, Speck & Thomas, 1995; Lindgren & Coursy, 1995;
Pargament, 1996; Sargent, 1989; Sinclair, 1993; Vesti & Kastrup, 1995;
Weaver, Koeing & Ocherg, 1996; Wulff, 1996). Mental health professionals,
in fact, have often viewed spiritual content as pathological (Larson et
al., 1993; Post, 1992; Weaver et al., 1996).
Both religion and spirituality
are universal and widespread phenomena, in that they are integral to numerous
cultures, and influence people of all ages, socio-economic status, and
educational levels. They continue to live because of, among other things,
social influences and need satisfaction. Every aspect of life, particularly
in the East, is more or less imbued with religious sentiments or perceived
as part of religious life. It is estimated that 94% of the American population
believe in God, 88% believe God loves them, 81% believe we will be called
before God on Judgement Day, 71% believe in life after death. More people
have confidence in organised religion than in any other social institution
(Gallup & Castelli, 1989).
The aim of this paper
is to show the close relationship between spirituality and well-being
by presenting research based evidence that spirituality or a spiritual
way of life has a bearing on well-being. In addition, it will show that
ideas or concepts drawn from spirituality can be effectively applied to
counselling and psychotherapy. But before presenting an overall view of
the relationship between spiritual outlook and psychological well-being
it will be appropriate first to define the basic concepts.
Spirituality: definition
Definitions of spirituality
in the relevant literature usually include some version of the following
words and phrases: feeling connected or belonging in the universe, believing
in a power outside of one’s self, searching for a sense of meaning or
purpose, experiencing transcendence and immanence, seeking one’s ultimate
and personal truths, experiencing a numinous quality, knowing unity of
the visible and invisible, having an internalized relationship between
the individual and the Divine, encountering limitless love, and moving
towards personal wholeness (Canda, 1995; Gaje-Fling & McCarthy, 1996;
Decker, 1993; King et al., 1995; Wulff, 1996). However, Reese (1997) strips
the term spirituality to its minimally necessary elements and defines
it as “consistency of action with belief”. He argues that spirituality
is, in behavioural-analytic terms, rule-governed behaviour in that the
rules (beliefs) that govern this behaviour (action) are a part of a coherent
system that defines “rightness”.
And additionally there
is a functional definition of spirituality which has been adopted by the
California state psychological association task force on spirituality
and psychotherapy—“courage to look within and to trust”, implying that
what is seen and what is trusted appears to be a deep sense of belonging,
of wholeness, of connectedness and of openness of the infinite.
Though spirituality
traditionally has been considered to be exclusively the domain of religion,
it is now being conceptualized in terms that have no particular relationship
to theology, and is at the same time being accepted as practical and intellectually
respectable. Worthington et al., (1996) speak of three categories of people
whose beliefs were classified to differentiate the religious from the
spiritual; (1) those who may be spiritual but not religious in that they
believe in and value a universal human spirit or an “elan vital” without
holding religious beliefs to be true, (2) those who are religious but
not spiritual holding to doctrines of a religious organization but not
experiencing any devotion to a higher power, and (3) those who are both
spiritual and religious and believe in valuing a higher power that is
acceptable to and consistent with some organized religion. It may be said
with some conviction that the majority of Hindu Indians may fall into
the second and third categories, for most use religion to morally and
spiritually guide their behaviour. This may be to a certain extent true
of other religions.
Spirituality which has
always been considered to be a natural part of being human, is an innate
human capacity to transcend the egocentric perspective from which people
constantly experience and evaluate their lives, opening them to a broader
world view, a heightened capacity for loving, and an increased motivation
to enhance the greater good (Chandler, Holder & Colander, 1992).
The definition of spirituality
provided by the tenth edition of Oxford English Dictionary is as follows:
“the equality or condition of being spiritual, attachment to or regard
for the thing of the spirit as opposed to material or worldly interest”.
The term spirituality refers to the individual’s experience of a dimension
of power and meaning transcendent to the ordinary sensory reality. Such
spiritual experiences may be associated with a naturalistic occupation
as well as with religious tradition and spiritual disciplines. According
to Vrinte (1996) spirituality is inspired and sustained by transpersonal
experiences that originate in the deepest recesses of the human being
and they are but the natural manifestations of that domain of the human
psyche that contain the greater depth of life.
Krippner and Welch (1992)
say that the word “spiritual” is used to describe aspects of human behaviour
and experience that reflect an alleged transcendent intelligence or process,
and is associated with several “identifiable values”: Among the values
a spiritual person experiences are: (1) a transcendent dimension conceptualized
as a supreme being, a “greater self”, or simply as “something more” from
which a person shows a sense of personal power, (2) meaning in life when
an authentic meaning and purpose in life fills an “existential vacuum”
(3) mission in life where there is a purpose in one’s vocation which may
be felt as a “call” or “destiny” to fulfill, (4) sacredness of life where
life is not divided into sacred and the secular but all experience is
sanctified and is suffused with awe and reverence (5) ultimate satisfaction
wherein a person may take pleasure in material things but the ultimate
basis for their happiness and satisfaction lies in their spiritual value
(6) altruism which propels one to respond to the needs of others as connectedness
between all persons is felt, (7) idealism where a commitment to the betterment
of world through not only meditation and prayer but also through concrete
actions is felt (8) realism where facts of tragedy, suffering pain or
death deepens one’s appreciation of life and strengthens the commitment
to make a difference in the world (9) fruits of spirituality such as compassion,
courage, joy, devotion have a positive effect not only on the spiritual
person but also on others and the world around them (10) healing effects
that draw others to the spiritual person who is viewed by friends as an
empowering resource in a relation.
Further Krippner and
Welch distinguish spirituality from religiosity and maintain that spiritual
people may or may not engage in formal religious practice and religious
people may not embody spiritual values. They say that people who have
internalized an institutionalized common set of beliefs, practices and
rituals (as dictated by religion) regarding spiritual concerns and issues
are not always spiritual. This view is elaborated by Vrinte (1996) who
says spirituality is distinct from religion in that spirituality is more
related to authentic mystical experiences whereas religion is more associated
with normative practices (laid down by a prophet or a religious group).
In fact Keen (1994) observes that millions of people who are unmoved by
established religion as well as disillusioned with a secular view of life,
are yet looking for some “missing value”, some absent purpose, some “new
meaning” and some “presence of the sacred”—all of which indicate becoming
spiritual in one’s orientation.
Attempts to define spirituality
as an innate characteristic which develops in a manner roughly corresponding
to psychological development defined by Freud and Erikson (who said that
normal crises precipitated by external or internal changes of life send
us from one stage of psychological development to the next), has led Fowler
(1981) to propose six stages of spiritual development. The first stage
begins with the age of two to seven when a child’s spirituality is fantasy
based. Next is school age when belief becomes more literal and concrete
as in seeing God as anthropomorphic. The third stage is adolescence governed
by a community aspect of spirituality. Then comes the stage of the early
twenties when individuals tend to relocate authority within themselves
and rely mostly on rationality. The fifth stage is midlife when there
is a shift toward a concept of God as a cosmic flow of life or light within,
and finally one reaches the sixth stage of universalizing faith with a
devotion to a transcendent vision not of one’s own making. Further, Fowler
has also pointed out that in spite of effective articulation there are
serious limits to the observations of spiritual states as opposed to the
observation of routine or ordinary psychological phenomena. It is not
possible in this present paper to cover comprehensively this aspect.
To summarize so far,
from the above discussion spirituality may be understood as an innate
human capacity to transcend the egocentric perspective from which people
experience and evaluate their lives and in the process to attain full
enlightenment. They have thoughts and feelings of connectedness with the
universe and a sense of moving towards personal wholeness by experiencing
transcendence and immanence.
Psychological well-being:
definition
Since recorded history,
philosophers have always considered happiness to be the highest good and
ultimate motivation for human functioning, but it is only recently that
excellent reviews of the history and philosophy of happiness have begun
to appear in psychological literature (Diener et al., 1999; Chekola, 1975;
Culberson, 1977; Willson, 1967). There have been many attempts to describe
psychological health in ideal terms which give us a list of qualities
that constitute a mature, healthy, fully functioning, self-actualizing
person. It is important to examine the definitions provided by some health
psychologists who have, in their attempts to define a healthy individual,
spelt out a list of specific characteristics, mostly based on research
and observation, that could be associated with an individual who is psychologically
healthy and experiences a state of well-being most of the time.
In her analysis of many
definitions Jahoda (1958), says positive mental health is based on the
following: (1) Attitudes towards the self which include the accessibility
of the self to consciousness, a correct self-concept which is one’s sense
of identity and the acceptance of one’s self. (2) Growth, development
and self-actualization (3) Integration (4) Autonomy (5) Perception of
reality and (6) Environmental Mastery which includes abilities to work,
love and play, adequate interpersonal relationships, the ability to meet
situational requirements, adaptation and adjustment, and efficiency in
problem solving.
David Seedhouse (1995),
introspects that the term “well-being” as used in present day health promotion
literature is an extremely vague notion. While psychologists believe well-being
is constructed out of three components: (1) Life-satisfaction (2) Positive
affect and (3) low Negative affect, the author concludes that judgements
of well-being are irreducibly subjective and that the meaning and content
of the term are seen to fluctuate, depending on who is using it and why
it is being used. Myers and Diener (1995) in their paper entitled “Who
is happy?” define high subjective well-being as frequent positive affect,
infrequent negative affect and a global sense of satisfaction with life.
Based on the above discussion
an operational definition of well-being may include the following: Firstly
it may be understood as a scientific sounding term for what people usually
mean by happiness. Secondly, it refers to what people think and feel about
themselves i.e., the cognitive and affective conclusions they reach when
they evaluate their existence. Thirdly, it involves the individual’s entire
condition i.e., psychological, social, and spiritual aspects of one’s
existence, and fourthly well-being is a relative state of affairs—relative
to the situation as well as to the values of the particular culture one
belongs to, such as the traditional “Indianness” of avoiding extreme and
maintaining equilibrium, of having good health and practicing self control,
self-realization and dissolution of the self.
Research studies
For the purpose of
this review of studies relating spirituality with psychological well-being,
studies involving religious influence have also been considered as they
are closely related to spirituality.
Spirituality and well-being
From
time immemorial it is believed that spiritual experiences and practices
have a therapeutic value in so far as they are capable of establishing
an integrated personality. A report (Culligan, 1996) of a 1995 conference
held at Harvard University reflects the new collaborative attempts of
religion and medicine wherein there is a recognition of the power of religion
and spiritual practices in medical treatment. The conference explored
the relationship between spirituality and healing in medicine, with reference
to the major world religions, and it provided a platform to discuss the
physiological, neurological and psychological effects of healing resulting
from spirituality.
Several recent studies
(Allman et al., 1992; Elkins, 1995; Shafranske & Malony, 1990) have
shown that the majority of practicing psychologists though not involved
in organized religion, consider spirituality important not only to their
personal lives but also to their clinical work. In a study Sullivan (1993)
reports findings from a larger qualitative study that is seeking to discover
factors associated with the successful adjustment of former and current
consumers of mental health services. The study concludes that spiritual
beliefs and practices were identified as essential to the success of 48%
of the informants interviewed.
Vaughan (1991) explored
the relevance of spiritual issues for individual psychotherapy among those
motivated by spiritual aspiration and concluded that spirituality underlies
both, personal impulses to growth and healing, and many creative cultural
and social enterprises. Spitznagel (1992) and Sweeney and Witmer (1992)
discussed the spiritual element in the well-ness model approach to work-adjustment
and rehabilitation counselling and said that this holistic concept of
working with clients is generally centred on faith, belief and values.
Westgate (1996) in her review proposed four dimensions of spiritual wellness:
(1) meaning in life (2) intrinsic value (3) transcendence and (4) spiritual
communality. The paper also discussed the implications of these dimensions
for research, counselling and counsellor education.
In a two year exploratory
group study of participants in spiritual healing practices, Glik (1986)
found that the healing which occurred is related to various measures of
psychological wellness defined as the construct of subjective health.
Fehring et al., (1987) correlating studies that investigate the relationship
between spirituality and psychological mood states in response to life
change, found that spiritual well-being, existential well-being and a
spiritual outlook showed a strong inverse relationship with negative moods,
suggesting that spiritual variables may influence well-being.
Over the years numerous
claims have been made about the nature of spiritual/mystical and Maslow’s
“peak experiences”, and about their consequences. Wuthnow (1978) set out
to explore findings regarding peak experiences from a systematic random
sample of 1000 persons and found that peak experiences are common to a
wide cross-section of people, and that one in two has experienced contact
with the holy or sacred, more than eight in ten have been moved deeply
by the beauty of nature and four in ten have experienced being in harmony
with the universe. Of these, more than half in each have had peak experiences
which have had deep and lasting effects on their lives. Peakers are more
likely also, to say they value working for social change, helping to solve
social problems, and helping people in need. Wuthnow stressed the therapeutic
value of these experiences and also the need to study the social significance
of these experiences in bringing about a world in which problems such
as social disintegration, prejudice and poverty can be eradicated. Savage
et al., (1995) provided clinical evidence to suggest that peakers produce
greater feelings of self-confidence and a deeper sense of meaning and
purpose. Mogar’s (1965) research also tended to confirm these findings.
Some researchers in
the recent past have found that life satisfaction correlated positively
with mystical / spiritual experiences, and these experiences were further
found to relate positively to one’s life purpose (Kass, et al., 1991).
In fact researchers are of the view that a positive relation between positive
affect and mystical experiences may not be surprising given that intense
positive affect is often considered to be one of the defining characteristics
of these experiences (Noble, 1985; Spilka, Hood & Gorsuch, 1985).
The few studies that investigated well-being measures, spirituality and
spiritual experience have found that people who have had spiritual experiences
are in the normal range of well-being and have a tendency to report more
extreme positive feelings than others (Kennedy, Kanthamani & Palmer,
1994; Kennedy & Kanthamani, 1995).
Spiritual experiences
are also considered to be exceptional human experiences at the upper end
of the normal range such as creative inspiration and exceptional human
performance, and can be life changing. Fahlberg, Wolfer and Fahlberg (1992)
interpreted personal crises from a developmental perspective that includes
the possibility of self-transcendence through spiritual experience / or
emergency. The authors suggest that health professionals need to recognize,
facilitate and support positive growth experiences.
A study by De Roganio
(1997) content-analyzed and organized into a paradigm case examples found
in themes of 35 lived-experience informants and 14 autobiographers who
represented a wide range of people with physical disability and chronic
illness. It was found that the combined elements of spiritual transformation,
hope, personal control, positive social support and a meaningful energetic
life enabled individuals to improve themselves and come to terms with
their respective conditions. These experiences led many people to realize
their own interest, sense of wholeness and unity, and to experience and
integrate a deeper meaning, sense of self and spirituality within their
lives.
Some studies have offered
a spiritual approach to addiction problems. Caroll (1993) found that 100
members of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) benefited from spirituality which
was found to correlate positively with having a purpose in life and the
length of sobriety. Frame and Williams (1996), in their study of religions
and spiritual dimensions of the African-American culture, address the
role of spirituality in shaping identity, and conclude that reconnecting
AA clients to their powerful spiritual tradition may be a crucial catalyst
for personal empowerment and spiritual liberation. The finding was confirmed
in a later study by Wif and Carmen (1996). Another study reported by Green
et al., (1998) described the process of spiritual awakening experienced
by some persons in recovery during the quest for sobriety. The data suggested
that persons in recovery often undergo life altering transformations as
a result of embracing a power higher than one’s self i.e., a “higher power”.
The result is often the beginning of an intense spiritual journey that
leads to sustained abstinence.
In the last few years
investigators in the rapidly growing field of mind-body medicine are coming
across findings that suggest that an attitude of openness to unusual experiences
such as spiritual, transcendental, peak, mystical may be conducive to
health and well-being. For example, Dean Ornish, a heart disease researcher,
believes that “opening your heart” to “experience a higher force” is in
an important component of his programme for reversing heart disease (Ornish,
1990, chapter 9). There are also studies that relate illness with spirituality:
Reese (1997) found in her study of terminally ill adults aged 20-85 years
that, (1) they had a greater spiritual perspective than non-terminally
ill hospitalized adults and adults, (2) their spiritual perspective was
positively related to well-being and (3) a significant larger number of
terminally ill adults indicated a change toward increased spirituality
than did non-terminally ill or healthy adults.
Further, McDowell et
al., (1996) investigated the importance of spirituality among 101 severely
mentally ill and chronically dependent in-patients, and 31 members of
the nursing staff who treated them. It was found that both the patients
and the staff who treated them were equally spiritually oriented, and
that the patients viewed spirituality as essential to their recovery and
they valued the spiritual programme in their treatment more than some
of the more concrete items.
Numerous studies have
found positive relationships between religious beliefs and practices and
physical or mental health measures. Although it appears that religious
belief and participation may possibly influence one’s subjective well-being,
many questions need to be answered such as when and why religion is related
to psychological well-being. A review by Worthington et al., (1996) offers
some tentative answers as to why religion may sometimes have positive
effects on individuals. Religion may (a) produce a sense of meaning, something
worth living and dying for (Spilka, Shaves & Kirkpath, 1985); (b)
stimulate hope (Scheier & Carver, 1987) and optimism (Seligman, 1991);
(c) give religious people a sense of control by a beneficient God, which
compensates for reduced personal control (Pargament et al., 1987); (d)
prescribe a healthier lifestyle that yields positive health and mental
health outcomes; (e) set positive social norms that elicit approval, nurturance,
and acceptance from others; (f) provide a social support network; or (g)
give the person a sense of the supernatural that is certainly a psychological
boost-but may also be a spiritual boost that cannot be measured phenomenologically
(Bergin & Payne, 1993). It is also reported by Myers and Diener (1995)
that people who experience a sustained level of happiness are more likely
to say that they have a meaningful religious faith than people who are
not happy over a long period of time.
A
study by Handway (1978) on religiosity concluded that religion is one
potential resource in people’s lives. More recently Myers and Diener (1995)
in their survey of related studies observe that links between religion
and mental health are impressive and that culture and religiosity may
provide better clues to understanding the nature of well-being. Religious
belief and practice play an important role in the lives of millions of
people worldwide. A review by Selway and Ashman (1998) highlighted the
potential of religion to effect the lives of people with disabilities,
their families and care givers.
Research relating stress
to religion indicated that religious and non-religious people tend to
experience equal amounts of stress but religion may help people deal better
with negative life events and their attendant stress (Schafer & King,
1990). A study by Maton (1989) supports the view that high level of stress
individuals are likely to benefit from perceived spiritual support and
is consistent with the stress and coping model based on religion proposed
by Pargament. Anson et al., (1990) found that belonging to a religious
community reduced stress whereas personal religious beliefs did not among
230 members of a kibbutzim. Similar findings were obtained by Williams
et al., (1991) where for 720 adults religious attendance buffered the
deleterious effects of stress on mental health. Courtenary et al., (1992)
found a significant relationship between religiosity and physical health
and that religion and coping were strongly related especially among the
oldest-old.
With regard to coping
Pargament (1996) cites five studies that show that religious forms of
coping are especially helpful to people in uncontrollable, unmanageable
or otherwise difficult situations. In the same lines Moran also believes
that survivors of crisis or disaster may benefit by experiencing God as
a refuge and as a reason to have hope (Moran, 1990). Patricia (1998) in
her review shows how religion and spirituality help adult survivors of
childhood violence.
Individuals with strong
religious faith have been found to report higher levels of life satisfaction,
greater personal happiness, and fewer negative psychological consequences
of traumatic life events (Ellison, 1991). Anson et al., (1990) examined
among 639 Jewish retirees over 60 years the relationship between self-rated
religiosity, physical and psychological well-being and life satisfaction
using data from a longitudinal study. Findings revealed religiosity was
only weakly and inversely related to health and psychological distress,
poor well-being at time 1 and a decline in well-being during the follow-up
year led to an increase in religiosity. Ellis and Smith (1991) administered
to 100 undergraduate students the Reasons for Living Inventory (RFL) and
a spiritual well-being scale, and found a positive correlation between
religious well-being and the total RFL score. Ellison’s (1993) data from
a national survey of Black Americans supported the hypothesis that participation
in Church communities fosters positive self-perception.
There have been studies
on the effects of religiosity. A study by Mookherjee (1994) found that
the perception of well-being was positively and significantly influenced
by, among other things, church membership and frequency of church attendance.
Blaine and Crocker (1995) found that religious belief salience and psychological
well-being were moderately positively correlated among Black students.
Two-thirds of the panel reported a consistently positive attitude –toward
being religious when subjects attached importance to being religious even
after 14 years later (Atchley, 1997).
Many psychologists who
study religion distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation
(Paloutzian, 1996). An intrinsic orientation involves internal religious
motives within a person. On the contrary extrinsic orientation involves
external motives outside of the religion, using the religion for unreligious
ends. There appears to be a positive correlation between intrinsically
religious people (religion as an end in itself) deriving substantial positive
mental health benefit from their religion (Donahue, 1985). Intrinsic religiosity
has been related to the following qualities characterising positive mental
health: internal locus of control, intrinsic motivational traits, sociability,
sense of well-being, responsibility, self-control, tolerance, and so on
(Bergin, 1991).
A long standing misconception
is that religion is a crutch for the weak. However, researchers in the
psychology of religion have found that many religious individuals were
competent. Payne et al., (1991) in their review on religion and mental
health found that there was a positive influence of intrinsic religiosity
on mental health in regard to well-being. In one study (Ventis, 1995)
found that individuals with intrinsic religious motivation reported a
greater sense of competence and control, as well as less worry and guilt
than did individuals with extrinsic religious motivation. In another study
by (Genia, 1998) it was found that intrinsically religious and pro-religious
students reported greater existential well-being than extrinsic or nonreligious
subjects.
As Indian culture has
a long tradition of spiritual practitioners as well as authentic records
of spiritual experiences it will not be out of place here to consider
them briefly. In addition their contribution to well-being is not inconsiderable.
Well-being: Indian perspective
The schools of Hindu
philosophy are abundant with rich, insightful, psychological treatises
on well-being. Buddhism and Jainism represent a view of personality and
describe methods for its growth into a particular form of perception.
The various schools of yoga prescribe methods to help to reach a high
level of consciousness and go beyond the limits of ordinary human experience.
Well-being is equated with the integration of personality.
Psychological well-being
to the Hindu means (1) integration of emotions with the help of an integrated
teacher (a spiritual master, Guru), (2) acquiring a higher philosophy
of life which helps to resolve inner tensions, (3) channelizing basal
passion directing the emotions to ultimate reality, (4) developing an
attitude whereby everything is viewed as a manifestation of ultimate reality
(5) cultivation of higher qualities which replace negative qualities,
and (6) the practice of concentration (Sinha, 1965).
The ultimate goal in
Indian thought goes beyond self-realization or transcendence and seeks
for a spiritual pursuit leading to the highest state of everlasting happiness,
“nirvana” or supreme bliss. The ultimate motive is spiritual
pursuit with the aim of attaining union with the universal self or moksha or nirvana. The
concept of well-being has also been elaborately given in Charka Samhita, the ancient treatise on the Indian systems of medicine
which is called Ayurveda (the treatise on life). In this treatise the
characteristics of happy and unhappy life have been elaborated. According
to the sankhya
philosophy, human personality
is a product of the interaction between the spirit (purusha) and matter (prakriti). The influence of prakriti on behaviour is emphasised in terms of the three
Gunas or qualities called sattva or the
element of knowledge, rajas or the
principle of activity, which on the affective side is the cause of all
painful experiences, and tamas or the
principle of passivity that clouds our intellect thereby producing ignorance.
It is said that the state of samyavastha
or equilibrium of the three Gunas is that which holds the secret to an
individual’s well-being.
Seminal contributions
to the concept of well-being have been made by one of the most widely
acclaimed religious philosophical texts of the Hindus, the Bhagavad-Gita (1905) which focuses on the idea of avoidance of
extremes and maintaining a kind of balance or equilibrium to enjoy a state
of well-being. The concept of well-being in Indian (Hindu) thought is
significantly characterized by a state of “goodmind” which is peaceful
quiet and serene. The Bhagavad Gita
speaks of being steady of mind (Sthitapragya)
and of performing ones duties without being lustfully attached to the
fruits of one’s action (karmayoga) as
representing a healthy person. The dissolution of the self or ego is considered
the most evolved stage of mental health; further it is believed that the
healthy mind acts but does not react and, therefore, is always watchful
of the root cause of any disturbance. A mind which is free from conflicts
and hence is clear about its duties which are performed with a spiritual
mission, is a mind which enjoys well-being (Verma, 1998).
Besides “the steadying
of mind” which is characterized by calm and poise in all situations, adverse
or favourable, other features such as being friendly, not bearing ill-will
for anyone, having compassion, forgiveness, being free from attachment
and egoism and being balanced in both pleasure and pain are hallmarks
of well-being according to The Bhagavad Gita
(Chapter XII, Verse 13); self control, self-realisation which is the realisation
that everything is totally interconnected, and the dissolution of the
self by the expansion of the “self” beyond its personal boundary leads
to a stage of the finest form of humanity where there are positive feeling
for all things and beings. So according to Indian thinking, well-being
unfolds at cognitive (rigorous self examination), conative (performance
of duty) and affective (expression of self beyond the ego) levels.
From the above account
it is clear that there exist differences about the concept of well-being
in the West and the East, in that the conceptualizations made in the West
revolve around the ability to satisfy one’s needs, avoidance of frustrations
and stress, and exercising certain amounts of control on the environment
such that it enhances the satisfaction of personal and social needs. In
the Indian tradition control over the senses is thought to be essential
to well-being. Emphasis is on the maintenance of balance between extremes
of satisfaction and denial (implying that needs need not be totally denied)
and adoption of a path of moderation. Further, since frustrations, failure,
successes and joys are considered inevitable in one’s life, the essence
of well-being lies in not being overwhelmed by either. While in the West
the idea is to have control or exploit the environment since it is thought
that environment provides the inputs that lead to need satisfaction, in
Hindu spiritual thought the concept of “being in tune” with the environment
is encouraged to be able to experience well-being.
Indian studies
In spite of the abundant
and regular information available on the nature and effects of spiritual
experiences, not many studies, in the empirical mode, have been carried
out so far in India. The few studies carried out with the aim of looking
into the relationship between spirituality/religion and well-being are
reported here. A study conducted by Naidu and Panda (1990) on 465 Hindu
adults aged 30-50 years, revealed that those low on the Hindu spiritual
concept of non-attachment (anasakti) obtained higher scores on tests measuring stress
and strain indicating that non-attachment reduces stress by eliminating
negative emotions.
Another recent study
by Krishna Mohan (1999) looked into the effects of the spiritual experiences
of 200 respondents aged 20-70 years, belonging to 13 various spiritual
organizations based on Hindu Philosophy. The subjects were administered
the Life Experience Questionnaire (LEQ), Index of Changes Resulting from
Experience (ICRE) and Checklist of Effects of Experiences (CEE). The findings
revealed that after the spiritual experiences they were generally happy,
cheerful and at peace most of the time, and rarely downhearted or depressed.
Among the values and motivations which give them meaning in life, they
reported that the need to achieve personal growth and maintaining close
relationships with loved ones who are important gave them a purpose in
life. The majorities of the respondents reported having excellent health,
and were satisfied with the meaning and purpose they found in their lives.
A significant number of respondents said that the spiritual experiences
they had were valuable or beneficial to them. It was also found that most
of the experiences contained references to the spiritual leader, God and
a “Higher power”. Further they have reported an increase in areas reflecting
humanistic and spiritual concerns, and a decrease in negative feelings
and beliefs.
Spirituality and well-being:
a contemporary scenario
Spirituality and religion,
despite their significance for individuals and institutions, have mostly
been neglected by psychologists and other mental health professionals
in this century. In more recent years, however, there have been signs
of renewed interest in the study of spirituality and religion. In the
earlier days of psychology there were many influential thinkers in the
field who included religion and spirituality in their theories e.g., Freud,
James, Jung, Erikson and Maslow (Wulff, 1996). But gradually interest
in this area faded out with rise of behaviourism as a legitimate and respected
field of study for psychologists (Dennis, 1995).
Many researchers have
argued the need for a spiritual and religious component in counselling
and psychotherapy in recent years. Scolled, (1993) expressed distress
over contemporary psychology and many contemporary psychotherapeutic approaches
which express the perception of human beings as cut off and isolated,
not only from nature and from individuals, but more significantly from
activities of cosmic purpose. While stressing the importance of spirituality
in psychotherapy, Bergin (1980) suggests that contemporary psychotherapy
has much to gain from a world view that reconnects human beings with one
another and with universal and spiritual purposes.
Recent years have witnessed
encouraging developments in research interest in the interaction of spirituality
and mental health and this interest is currently growing (Adams, 1995;
Hall & Hall, 1997; Wulff, 1996). Another encouraging sign in this
direction is that the recent psychiatric literature and contemporary socio-political
developments are suggesting a need to reconsider the place of religion
and spirituality in psychiatry (Turbott, 1996). Further, it appears that
science and spirituality are no longer considered as being diametrically
opposed or mutually exclusive (Neil, 1995). For example, Helminiak (1996)
argues that spirituality can meet the demanding criteria that qualify
it as a science, a specialisation within psychology. There is also a renewed
effort in psychology to embrace spirituality (Dennis, 1995) and a recognition
that there was a serious oversight all these years to have ignored the
role of spirituality in the development of the psyche (Gopal-McNicol,
1997).
There is a growing evidence
for increased interest in psychology of religion and spirituality in Western
society as a whole (Hill, 1999). This can be seen in the steep increase
in the number of articles published in mainstream journals and workshops
on spirituality. Pargament (1999) a leading researcher in the area of
religion and spirituality observes that the field is beginning to emerge
in coming years as a leading sub-field of psychology. Even in research
the trend is changing where respect and under-representation of research
in the area of religion and spirituality which was present in the past
is slowly beginning to fade. To sum up, the growing interest, as religion
and spirituality are importantly related to, in a number of domains, has
led to a great interest among psychologists and other related professionals
in recent years.
Much of the credibility
established by the field in the recent years can be attributed to the
literature showing the relationship of religion and spirituality with
mental health (See Gartner, 1996; Ventis, 1995) and physical (see McCullough,
1999, Dull & Skokan, 1995; Hill & Butter, 1995) health, which
substantially established the link. Though the relationship is complex,
with religion and spirituality correlating both positively and negatively
with mental and physical health, the positive benefits of religion and
spirituality seem to outweigh the negative (Bergin, 1983; Payne et al.,
1991). From the compelling evidence based on literature it can be said
that spirituality and religion are a potent force in society, shaping
both individual and institutions.
Given its concerns with
the individual-in-context and systemic change, spirituality has many implications
for mental health in particular and psychology in general. Further, considering
religion and spirituality as a cultural phenomena which has relevance
and meaning to its practitioners, it can be understood in a secular frame
drawn from the West. It opens a new area of significant study in understanding
human dynamics of non-European cultures. It also hold the key to understanding
the behaviour patterns and modes of thought which westerners often find
either amusing or puzzling.
Realising the role of
culture in understanding behaviour and using culturally based knowledge
in mental health interventions in recent years has further broadened the
scope for the study of religious and spiritual issues. The first part
of this paper presents studies showing positive effects of spirituality
and religion on psychological well-being. While drawing implications,
the second part of the paper attempts to look into the possibility of
spirituality as a cultural alternative to Western psychotherapies in an
Indian context.
There is a growing interest
in spirituality in everyday life (Daniels, 1997; Forman, 1998; Gallup
Poll, 1997; Moyers, 1993; Yankelovich, 1981), but also in disciplines
ranging from philosophy and popular literature to psychotherapy, health
psychology, medicine and science (Begley, 1998; Brown, 1994; Garvey, 1985;
Goleman, 1993; Harris, 1997; Hunt, 1995; Roof, 1993; Vaughan, 1991, 1995;
Walsh, 1997; Wilber, 1998; Wulff, 1997). Religiosity and spirituality
were formerly used almost interchangeably but spirituality seems to be
a more inclusive and abstract concept than religiosity (Mahoney &
Graci, 1999). With the acceptance of some role of spirituality and religion
in counselling and psychotherapy, the last decade has witnessed an increase
in research attempts to look for the significant contribution being made
by religion to counselling and psychotherapy.
Spirituality and psychotherapy
In
a study by Heise and Steitz (1991) it was found that the philosophy of
spiritual progress, which was promoted in many 12-step programs, proved
more conducive to functional mental health and morality than did a philosophy
of spiritual perfection based on a fundamentalist Christian focus. This
was true for dysfunctional individuals, family systems and societies.
Knoblauch (1985) reported his findings based on Taoist thought and 5 Taoist
counselling constructs helped individuals begin to accept themselves as
they are rather than providing an ego-based system of organized despair
by increased self-esteem or helping them to be more rational or positive
in their lives.
The need for mental
health professionals to be sensitized to the role of religion and spirituality
as coping mechanisms is being stressed (Jenkins & Pargament, 1995)
and many believe that spirituality may be appropriate for inclusion in
therapy if the client and situation warrant it (Kivley, 1986). On the
same lines Ross (1994) argued that understanding and the judicious encouragement
of religious practice can augment therapy and provide a basis for reframing,
which can assist in treatment. Sappington (1994) calls for the development
of a psychology of Christian living to help in Christian oriented counselling.
In fact a wide range
of spiritual healing traditions emphasizes the central importance of the
connection of all life to spiritual or cosmic realities. In these views,
healing is usually seen as restoring a condition of wholeness or harmony
(Carlson & Shield, 1989). Several investigators have studied the relative
frequency of use of various religious techniques with counselling and
psychotherapy. For example Ball and Goodyear (1991) and James et al.,
(1992) found that prayer has often been used by the religious counsellor
for religious clients as an adjunct to counselling. In a study by Soderton
and Martinson (1987) it was found that the 25 cancer patients’ strategy
for coping with cancer was through prayer.
In India one very often
finds that a spiritually oriented person is also at the same time religious,
more so if he/she happens to be a Hindu. To most Hindus religion is the
source of their spirituality. It is interesting, to note that a survey
(Gallup, 1988) reported that 98% of the population in India said that
they believe in God. In India it is a common practice to use religious
methods and spiritual concepts for both physical and mental well-being
and it is now being increasingly recognized that psychotherapists would
do well to incorporate spiritual dimensions of people not only in healing
mental disturbances but in enhancing positive growth and well-being to
the willing individuals (Rangaswamy, 1994). While reviewing the Atharva Veda,
a sacred Hindu text, Balodhi & Chowdhary (1986) argued that the Atharva Veda has been an important tool of traditional healers
over the course of history. They also suggested that it may prove useful,
if modified, to fit within an Indian context of treating mental illness.
This is corroborated by Holdstock (1979) who, while discussing the incidence
of indigenous healing in South Africa, recognised that including the spiritual
and emotional dimensions in psychotherapy yielded better results. Further
he suggested that such an approach might provide an alternative to existing
modes of Western psychotherapy.
Indian mental health
professionals have attempted to apply the psychotherapeutic system evolved
out of yoga, in addition to the Western methods, which may not exactly
suit the prevailing cultural conditions (Rao P.V.K. 1998). Emphasising
the strength of yoga and showing parallels with psychotherapy, Lerner
(1971) affirms that yoga is basically spiritual in its thrust and suggests
that Western psychotherapists might benefit from yoga knowledge as it
has therapeutic and growth qualities. If adopted in psychotherapy, counselling
and community programmes, this yoga knowledge might promote well-being.
Based on the research
studies it can be said that spirituality as an individual and cultural
phenomena has not received the due attention that it deserves in psychology.
To study spiritual phenomena appropriate modalities and methods should
be devised in order to have clarity and rigor. It can also be observed
that spirituality offers an alternative and inexpensive method of psychotherapy
aimed at strengthening the personality. Finally, spirituality can be studied
as a part of cultural studies with specific reference to the Indian context
where a long tradition of spiritual experiences and way of life has been
authentically established.
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Acknowledgements
I wish to thank Dr. Shanthi V. Prasad and Dr. D. Peda Raju for
their valuable suggestions and comments in the preparation of this paper.